Author(s): Yongnan Zhu; Yubo Zhang; Linrui Shi; Shan Jiang
Linked Author(s):
Keywords: Household behavior; Household water use; Seasonal variation; Urban sustainability; Water-energy-carbon nexus
Abstract: Households are pivotal in urban water-energy-carbon systems, with significant variations in consumption patterns among different families. Based on a year-long survey of 19,576 individuals in Beijing, China, this study examines the interconnections and driving mechanisms of water-related energy and carbon flows from three dimensions: behavior, appliances, and climate. The quantified outcomes reveal that the daily per capita water use, related energy consumption, and associated carbon emissions in Beijing are 140.2 L, 3.2 kW·h, and 3.0 kgCO₂, respectively. Behavioral analysis shows distinct age-based differences; middle-aged and young groups have the highest water consumption, while the elderly exhibit the highest energy and carbon intensity due to greater hot water use. Notably, dietary and bathing activities are the primary sources of carbon emissions, collectively contributing over 80%. In terms of appliances, the efficiency of water fixtures, particularly the type of water heater which can cause an energy intensity difference of 8-12 kW·h/m³, is a key factor. Climatically, resource consumption shows seasonal variation, with water use peaking in summer and energy use rising by 20.2% in winter, driving carbon emissions to 3.4 kgCO₂/p·d. This tripartite framework provides a theoretical and empirical basis for precise and differentiated synergistic governance strategies in megacities.
Year: 2026