Author(s): Shan Jiang; Meng Hao; Yongnan Zhu; Qingming Wang
Linked Author(s):
Keywords: Virtual water; City-level MRIO; Input–output analysis; Trade; GDP
Abstract: Amid evolving resource allocation patterns driven by rapid economic growth and trade, it is essential to accurately evaluate regional water resource pressures and characterize virtual water transfer networks. This study combines input-output modeling with complex network theory to construct a multi-layer virtual water network across 313 Chinese cities, covering the agricultural, industrial, and urban public sectors. Results reveal distinct sectoral differences in virtual water flow scale and spatial distribution. The agricultural sector shows the highest flow (661.72 × 10⁸ m³), with inflows concentrated in eastern China and Xinjiang, and outflows dispersed across northern arid and semi-arid regions, southern China, and the northeast—reflecting a clear north-to-south transfer pattern. Industrial virtual water flow (278.83 × 10⁸ m³) is heavily concentrated in developed economic zones such as the Bohai Rim and the Yangtze River Economic Belt. The urban public sector records the smallest flow (41.13 × 10⁸ m³), with high-flow nodes mainly located in transport and economic hubs. Agricultural trade is identified as the key driver of virtual water flows, with spatial patterns strongly aligned with economic geography. Urban GDP shows a significant positive correlation with virtual water inflow intensity (r = 0.67). Under current land and development policies, China’s productivity and economic layout are expected to remain stable, sustaining the short-term north–south and west–east virtual water flow trends. This study offers a scientific basis for optimizing water resource management and designing region-specific policies.
Year: 2026